One of the first necessities for the evolving Egyptian nation was to control the Nile River, which inundated the land throughout its valley each year with deposits of silt and mud. In the FAIYUM, where Predynastic Period inhabitants had discovered the ease with which they could turn to agricultural pursuits, efforts were made to channel the water coming through the Bahr Yusef into the region. Dikes, canals, and ditches were dug in the Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.), but the major renovations were accomplished by the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty, especially by AMENEMHET III (1844–1797 B.C.E.).
The purpose of the irrigation systems and hydraulic projects was to extend the time during which the Nile waters could be made available to fields in the western Delta and the Faiyum. The Nile had formed Lake MOERIS there in the Predynastic Period, and the Egyptians started building a retaining wall some 27 miles long, a construction which provided them with 27,000 acres of farmland. During the flood period, the Nile provided new water for the lake, and the water was carefully channeled into depressions that were dug from the soil by hand. Regulators, such as matted covers and wooden slats, provided control over the flow of the water. It has been estimated that Lake Moeris doubled in size during inundations, and most of its water was directed into other depressions or into channels that led to a vast irrigation-ditch complex.
Sluices and narrow ravines were devised for regulating irrigation, and gullies were cut into the natural banks or placed in the retaining walls at various points so that water could be stored or used as the seasons and the crops demanded. These sluices were covered with the same reed mats and kept under constant supervision by a unit of trained irrigation experts. The mats were lowered or raised according to the requirements of distant fields that were connected to the water reserve by channels. All of the hydraulic system components required constant vigilance and repairs, and these were carried out throughout the year. When the shaduf was introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period (1640–1532 B.C.E.), the movement of water was greatly improved. Crops could be rotated and an additional growing season coaxed from the Faiyum because of the ability of crews to transfer water efficiently.
Though the Egyptians had a skillfully designed hydraulic system, they did not have earthmoving equipment. Hundreds of able-bodied men came into an area and simply dug out the ground in a desired region. The earth was put into baskets, which were carried away to a particular point where a wall was needed or where mounds could protect various crops or estates. The assembly line of diggers, basket carriers, and mound builders worked ceaselessly until the new reservoir was completed and filled. Such a feat was accomplished in the reign of AMENHOTEP III (1391–1353 B.C.E.). Amenhotep III built a vast resort, MALKATA, on the western shore of the Nile at THEBES, including a lake for the royal barges dug out of the ground by crews of workmen who accomplished the ruler’s will in just over two weeks.
The fall of the New Kingdom in 1070 B.C.E. did not hinder agriculture in Egypt. The farmers simply turned to local NOME administrators and continued their seasonal routines. Some dynasties, ruling a century or two, made efforts to reclaim the Faiyum, and the Ptolemies (304–30 B.C.E.) added royal residences and new innovations to the fields, introducing advanced systems of irrigation and crop controls. The Greek methods supplemented the traditional ones, adding to the fertility of the Nile Valley. During the Ptolemaic Period agriculture was a state controlled industry.
Seeds, grains, and textile plants, as well as tools, were lent to the farmers by the state-operated agricultural offices, and designated crops were grown throughout the Nile Valley according to the seasons and the schedules mandated. The crops were repayments to the state and had to be delivered to the same agencies. The Ptolemies coordinated the agricultural output of Egypt with current trade systems.
The Romans, aware of Egypt as “the bread basket of the world,” took control in 30 B.C.E. and maintained regimented improvements in the important agricultural districts. Other farmers, isolated and unconcerned about political rivalries or changes, continued tilling the land, irrigating their fields, and reaping bountiful harvests.
